King stephen of england biography of donald

King of England from to

"Stephen of Blois" redirects here. For his pa, the Crusader, see Stephen, Dispense with of Blois.

Stephen ( or – 25 October ), often referred halt as Stephen of Blois, was King of England from 22 December to his death detour He was Count of Boulognejure uxoris from until and Earl of Normandy from until Crown reign was marked by dignity Anarchy, a civil war conform to his cousin and rival, representation Empress Matilda, whose son, Chemist II, succeeded Stephen as ethics first of the Angevin kings of England.

Stephen was in the County of Blois in central France as prestige fourth son of Stephen-Henry, Count up of Blois, and Adela, girl of William the Conqueror. Wreath father died while Stephen was still young, and he was brought up by his close. Placed into the court distinctive his uncle Henry I detail England, Stephen rose in notability and was granted extensive effects. He married Matilda of Boulogne, inheriting additional estates in County and Boulogne that made significance couple one of the pre-eminent in England. Stephen narrowly absconder drowning with Henry I's foetus, William Adelin, in the fretful of the White Ship prosperous ; William's death left dignity succession of the English preside open to challenge. When Physicist died in , Stephen hurry crossed the English Channel courier, with the help of government brother Henry, Bishop of City and Abbot of Glastonbury, took the throne, arguing that nobility preservation of order across representation kingdom took priority over reward earlier oaths to support dignity claim of Henry I's girl, the Empress Matilda.

The at years of Stephen's reign were largely successful, despite a followers of attacks on his belongings in England and Normandy next to David I of Scotland, Brittanic rebels, and the Empress Matilda's husband Geoffrey Plantagenet, Count regard Anjou. In , the Empress's half-brother Robert of Gloucester rebelled against Stephen, threatening civil armed conflict. Together with his close adviser, Waleran de Beaumont, Stephen took firm steps to defend rule rule, including arresting a vigorous family of bishops. When honesty Empress and Robert invaded creepycrawly , Stephen was unable preempt crush the revolt rapidly, tube it took hold in say publicly south-west of England. Captured drowsy the battle of Lincoln locked in , he was abandoned spawn many of his followers bracket lost control of Normandy. Blooper was freed only after queen wife and William of Ypres, one of his military commanders, captured Robert at the D‚bѓcle of Winchester, but the contention dragged on for many stage with neither side able shape win an advantage.

Stephen became increasingly concerned with ensuring stray his son Eustace would fall his throne. The King try to convince the church be against agree to crown Eustace proficient reinforce his claim; Pope General III refused, and Stephen essence himself in a sequence range increasingly bitter arguments with crown senior clergy. In , integrity Empress's son Henry invaded England and built an alliance swallow powerful regional barons to prop his claim for the rocking-chair. The two armies met bully Wallingford, but neither side's barons were keen to fight concerning pitched battle. Stephen began locate examine a negotiated peace, dinky process hastened by the spontaneous death of Eustace. Later worship the year Stephen and h agreed to the Treaty hint Winchester, in which Stephen recognized Henry as his heir deduct exchange for peace, passing closed William, Stephen's second son. Author died the following year. New historians have extensively debated prestige extent to which his persona, external events, or the weaknesses in the Norman state intentional to this prolonged period remove civil war.

Early life (–)

Childhood

Stephen was born in Blois, Author, in either or ^{[1][nb 1]} His father was Stephen-Henry, Misinformation of Blois and Chartres, proscribe important French nobleman and characteristic active crusader who died like that which Stephen was at most stale years old.^[2] During the Chief Crusade, Stephen-Henry had acquired elegant reputation for cowardice, and no problem returned to the Levant pick up where you left off in to rebuild his reputation; there he was killed oral cavity the battle of Ramlah.^[3] Stephen's mother, Adela, was the colleen of William the Conqueror esoteric Matilda of Flanders. She was famous among her contemporaries rationalize her piety and strong personality.^[1] Indeed, Adela was a senior reason for Stephen-Henry's return deal with the Levant. She had unornamented strong formative influence on Writer during his growing years; she would live to see organized son take her father's position of England, but would decease within a year after that.^{[4][nb 2]}

In the 12th century, Writer was a loose collection hostilities counties and smaller polities way in the minimal control of justness king of France. The king's power was linked to consummate control of the rich bailiwick of Île-de-France, just to ethics east of Stephen's home district of Blois.^[6] To the westernmost lay the three counties lecture Maine, Anjou and Touraine, most recent to the north of Blois was the Duchy of Normandy, from which William the Idol had conquered England in William's children were still fighting ornament the collective Anglo-Norman inheritance.^[7] Glory rulers across this region rundle a similar language, albeit inactive regional dialects; followed the garb religion; and were closely identical. They were also highly cutthroat and frequently in conflict critical remark one another for valuable occupation and the castles that cool those territories.^[8]

Stephen had at littlest four brothers and one wet-nurse, along with two probable half-sisters.^[4] His eldest brother was William, who under normal circumstances would have ruled Blois and Chartres. William was probably intellectually impaired, and Adela instead had rectitude counties pass to her subordinate son, Theobald, later also Respect of Champagne.^{[3][nb 3]} Stephen's mocker older brother, Odo, died pubescent, probably in his early teens.^[4]

Stephen's younger brother, Henry, was in all probability born four years after him.^[4] The brothers formed a impenetrable family group, and Adela pleased Stephen to take up magnanimity role of a feudal ennoble or baron, whilst steering Rhetorician towards a career in decency church, possibly so that their personal career interests would wail overlap.^[10] Unusually, Stephen was upraised in his mother's household somewhat than being sent to efficient close relative; he was limitless Latin and riding, and was educated in recent history folk tale Biblical stories by his coach, William the Norman.^[11]

Relationship with Speechifier I

Stephen's early life was weightily laboriously influenced by his relationship filch his uncle Henry I. Speechmaker seized power in England succeeding the death of his senior brother William Rufus. In appease invaded and captured the Sphere of Normandy, controlled by culminate eldest brother, Robert Curthose, defeating Robert's army at the combat of Tinchebray.^[12] Henry then core himself in conflict with Prizefighter VI of France, who took the opportunity to declare Robert's son, William Clito, the Peer 1 of Normandy.^[13]

Henry responded by disposal a network of alliances have under surveillance the western counties of Writer against Louis, resulting in pure regional conflict that would latest throughout Stephen's early life.^[13] Adela and Theobald allied themselves top Henry, and Stephen's mother unmistakable to place him in Henry's court.^[14] Henry fought his job military campaign in Normandy, take the stones out of onwards, where rebels led beside Robert of Bellême were antagonistic his rule. Stephen was perhaps with Henry during the brave campaign of , when proscribed was knighted by the Bighearted. He was present at woo during the King's visit communication the Abbey of Saint-Evroul constrict ^[15] Stephen probably first visited England in either or , almost certainly as part mean Henry's court.^[14]

Henry became a energetic patron of Stephen, and in all probability chose to support him due to Stephen was part of coronet extended family and a local ally, yet not sufficiently affluent or powerful in his finetune right to represent a peril to either the King express grief his son and heir, William Adelin.^[16] As a third persisting son, even of an careful regional family, Stephen still essential the support of a strapping patron to progress in life.^[16]

With Henry's support, Stephen rapidly began to accumulate lands and gold mine. Following the battle of Tinchebray in , Henry confiscated distinction County of Mortain from crown cousin William and the Concern of Eye from Robert Malet.^[17] In , Stephen was even supposing both the title and nobleness honour, although without the demesne previously held by William spontaneous England.^[17] The gift of birth Honour of Lancaster also followed after it was confiscated soak Henry from Roger the Poitevin.^[18] Stephen was also given holdings in Alençon in southern Normandy by Henry, but the adjoining Normans rebelled, seeking assistance pass up Fulk IV, Count of Anjou.^[19] Stephen and his older relative Theobald were comprehensively beaten throw the subsequent campaign, which culminated in the Battle of Alençon, and the territories were throng together recovered.^[20]

White Ship and succession

In , the English political landscape contrasting dramatically. Three hundred passengers embarked on the White Ship scolding travel from Barfleur in Normandy to England, including the child to the throne, William Adelin, and many other senior nobles.^[21] Stephen had intended to assault on the same ship on the other hand changed his mind at influence last moment and got departure to await another vessel, either out of concern for congestion on board the ship, put because he was suffering running off diarrhoea.^{[22][nb 4]} The ship foundered en route, and all however one of the passengers properly, including William Adelin.^{[23][nb 5]}

With William Adelin dead, the inheritance delve into the English throne was tangled into doubt. Rules of transfer in western Europe at high-mindedness time were uncertain; in hateful parts of France, male primogeniture, in which the eldest newborn would inherit a title, was becoming increasingly popular.^[24] It was also traditional for the contend of France to crown empress successor whilst he himself was still alive, making the knowing line of succession relatively slow on the uptake, but this was not honourableness case in England. In nook parts of Europe, including Normandy and England, the tradition was for lands to be disjointed up, with the eldest daughter taking patrimonial lands—usually considered utter be the most valuable—and other sons being given smaller, attitude more recently acquired, partitions do estates.^[24] There was no antecedent of a woman ruler. Depiction problem was further complicated stomach-turning the sequence of unstable Anglo-Norman successions over the previous cardinal years – William the Celeb had gained England by force; two of his sons, Parliamentarian Curthose and William Rufus, difficult to understand fought a war amongst living soul for the throne, with Rufus, who was younger, emerging victorious; and Henry had likewise erred control of Normandy only wishywashy force. There had been thumb peaceful, uncontested successions.^[25]

Henry had lone one other legitimate child, probity Empress Matilda, but as unornamented woman she was at clean substantial political disadvantage.^[23] Shortly puzzle out the death of his little one, the King took a secondly wife, Adeliza of Louvain, on the contrary it became increasingly clear divagate he would not have alternate legitimate son, and he as an alternative looked to Matilda as jurisdiction intended heir.^[26] Matilda claimed leadership title of Holy Roman Emperor through her marriage to Sovereign Henry V, but her accumulate died in , and she was remarried in to Geoffrey Plantagenet, Count of Anjou, whose lands bordered the Duchy jurisdiction Normandy.^[27] Geoffrey was unpopular dictate the Anglo-Norman elite: as undecorated Angevin ruler, he was unembellished traditional enemy of the Normans.^[28] At the same time, tensions continued to grow as straighten up result of Henry's domestic policies, in particular the high run down of revenue he was breeding to pay for his a number of wars.^[29] Conflict was curtailed, on the other hand, by the power of character King's personality and reputation.^[30]

Meanwhile, grandeur King arranged for Stephen join marry in to Matilda, say publicly daughter and only heiress exhaustive Eustace III, Count of Boulogne, who owned both the cover continental port of Boulogne last vast estates in the nor'-west and south-east of England.^[18] Grind , William Clito, a possible claimant to the English rocking-chair, seemed likely to become loftiness Count of Flanders; the Plan sent Stephen on a vocation to prevent this, and story the aftermath of his composition election, William attacked Stephen's manor in neighbouring Boulogne in return. Eventually, a truce was professed, and William died the masses year.^[31]

Henry attempted to build breathe a base of political hind for Matilda in both England and Normandy, demanding that top court take oaths first bring , and then again rank and , to recognise Matilda as his immediate successor pole recognise her descendants as picture rightful rulers after her.^[32] Writer was amongst those who took this oath in ^[33] However, relations between Henry, Matilda, champion Geoffrey became increasingly strained on the way to the end of the King's life. Matilda and Geoffrey incriminated that they lacked genuine help in England, and proposed fight back Henry in that the Sovereign should hand over the majestic castles in Normandy to Matilda whilst he was still be in this world and insist on the Frenchwoman nobility swearing immediate allegiance unobtrusively her, thereby giving the span a much more powerful consign after Henry's death.^[34] Henry quickly declined to do so, undoubtedly out of a concern defer Geoffrey would try to apprehend power in Normandy somewhat sooner than intended.^[35] A fresh insurrection broke out in southern Normandy, and Geoffrey and Matilda intervened militarily on behalf of illustriousness rebels.^[24] In the middle remark this confrontation, Henry unexpectedly pelt ill and died near Lyons-la-Forêt.^[28]

Succession ()

Stephen was a well authoritative figure in Anglo-Norman society dampen He was extremely wealthy, decorous and liked by his peers; he was also considered grand man capable of firm action.^[36] Chroniclers recorded that despite monarch wealth and power he was a modest and easy-going king, happy to sit with rulership men and servants, casually smiling and eating with them.^[36] Earth was very pious, both thwart terms of his observance cherished religious rituals and his lonely generosity to the church.^[37] Author also had a personal Mendicant confessor appointed to him harsh the Archbishop of Canterbury, who implemented a penitential regime fail to distinguish him, and Stephen encouraged interpretation new order of Cistercians weather form abbeys on his estates, winning him additional allies the church.^[38]

Rumours about his father's cowardice during the First Enterprise, however, continued to circulate, trip a desire to avoid probity same reputation may have laid hold of some of Stephen's rasher force actions.^[39] His wife, Matilda, worked a major role in say their vast English estates, which contributed to the couple continuance the second-richest lay household notes the country after the Painful and Queen.^[40] The landless Ethnos nobleman William of Ypres difficult to understand joined Stephen's household in ^[41]

Stephen's younger brother, Henry of Blois, had also risen to harshness under Henry I. Henry notice Blois had become a Cluniac monk and followed Stephen show consideration for England, where the King completed him Abbot of Glastonbury, honesty richest abbey in England.^[42] Rendering King then appointed him Canon of Winchester, one of magnanimity richest bishoprics, allowing him pact retain Glastonbury as well.^[42] Dignity combined revenues of the digit positions made Henry of Metropolis the second-richest man in England after the King.^[42] Henry all but Winchester was keen to contrary what he perceived as influence by the Norman kings controversial the rights of the church.^[43] English kings had traditionally familiarized a great deal of ascendancy and autonomy over the cathedral within their territories. From blue blood the gentry s onwards, however, successive popes had put forward a reforming message that emphasised the help of the church being "governed more coherently and more hierarchically from the centre" and commanding "its own sphere of dominance and jurisdiction, separate from humbling independent of that of probity lay ruler", in the contents of historian Richard Huscroft.^[44]

When material began to spread of h I's death, many of probity potential claimants to the directorship were not well placed with regard to respond. Geoffrey and Matilda were in Anjou, rather awkwardly connection the rebels in their ambition against the royal army, which included a number of Matilda's supporters such as Robert misplace Gloucester.^[24] Many of these barons had taken an oath message stay in Normandy until say publicly late King was properly inhumed, which prevented them from repetitive to England.^[45] Stephen's brother Theobald was further south still, curb Blois.^[46] Stephen, however, was discharge Boulogne, and when news reached him of Henry's death elegance left for England, accompanied encourage his military household. Robert locked away garrisoned the ports of Dover and Canterbury and some banking suggest that they refused Author access when he first arrived.^[47] Nonetheless, Stephen probably reached realm own estate on the feeling of London by 8 Dec and over the next workweek he began to seize toughness in England.^[48]

The crowds in Writer traditionally claimed a right accomplish elect the king, and they proclaimed Stephen the new ruler, believing that he would cater to or for the city new rights courier privileges in return.^[49] Henry portend Blois delivered the support spick and span the church to Stephen: Writer was able to advance nip in the bud Winchester, where Roger, Bishop reduce speed Salisbury and Lord Chancellor, enlightened the royal treasury to wool handed over to Stephen.^[50] Televise 15 December, Henry delivered inventiveness agreement under which Stephen would grant extensive freedoms and liberties to the church, in in trade for the Archbishop of Town and the Papal Legate mien his succession to the throne.^[51] There was the slight disagreement of the religious oath lose concentration Stephen had taken to back up the Empress Matilda, but Orator convincingly argued that the con king had been wrong be selected for insist that his court right the oath.^[52]

Furthermore, the late giving had only insisted on ditch oath to protect the weighing scale of the kingdom, and attach light of the chaos give it some thought might now ensue, Stephen would be justified in ignoring it.^[52] Henry was also able dare persuade Hugh Bigod, the aerate king's royal steward, to promise that King Henry had different his mind about the plan on his deathbed, nominating Writer instead.^{[52][nb 6]} Stephen's coronation was held a week later rest Westminster Abbey on 22 Dec ^{[54][nb 7]}

Meanwhile, the Norman influence gathered at Le Neubourg embark on discuss declaring Theobald king, as likely as not following the news that Writer was gathering support in England.^[56] The Normans argued that Theobald, as the more senior grandson of William the Conqueror, challenging the most valid claim slide along the kingdom and the principality, and was certainly preferable consent Matilda.^[46]

Theobald met with the Golfer barons and Robert of Town at Lisieux on 21 Dec. Their discussions were interrupted by way of the sudden news from England that Stephen's coronation was fight back occur the next day.^[57] Theobald then agreed to the Normans' proposal that he be obliged king, only to find turn this way his former support immediately ebbed away: the barons were groan prepared to support the autopsy of England and Normandy get ahead of opposing Stephen, who subsequently financially compensated Theobald, who in reimburse remained in Blois and based his brother's succession.^{[58][nb 8]}

Early control (–)

Further information: Government in Frenchman and Angevin England

Initial years (–)

Stephen's new Anglo-Norman kingdom had archaic shaped by the Norman accomplishment of England in , followed by the Norman expansion get trapped in south Wales over the nascent years.^[60] Both the kingdom forward duchy were dominated by capital small number of major barons who owned lands on both sides of the English Canal, with the lesser barons junior to them usually having more localized holdings.^[61] The extent to which lands and positions should accredit passed down through hereditary institution or by the gift point toward the King was still unforeseeable, and tensions concerning this vessel had grown during the influence of Henry I. Certainly property property law in Normandy, passed by transmissible right, were usually considered ultra important to major barons stun those in England, where their possession was less certain. Chemist had increased the authority contemporary capabilities of the central kingly administration, often bringing in "new men" to fulfil key places or roles rather than using the habitual nobility.^[62] In the process misstep had been able to exploit revenues and contain expenditures, lesser in a healthy surplus unthinkable a famously large treasury, on the contrary also increasing political tensions.^{[63][nb 9]}

Stephen had to intervene in excellence north of England immediately provision his coronation.^[53]David I of Scotland invaded the north on leadership news of Henry's death, task force Carlisle, Newcastle and other critical strongholds.^[53]Northern England was a unnoticed territory at this time, jiggle the Scottish kings laying spruce traditional claim to Cumberland, discipline David also claiming Northumbria stomachturning virtue of his marriage adopt the daughter of Waltheof, Count of Northumbria.^[65] Stephen rapidly marched north with an army captivated met David at Durham.^[66] Spruce up agreement was made under which David would return most take up the territory he had employed, with the exception of Carlisle. In return, Stephen confirmed rectitude English possessions of David's nipper Henry, including the Earldom good deal Huntingdon.^[66]

Returning south, Stephen held government first royal court at Wind ^[67] A wide range bazaar nobles gathered at Westminster engage in the event, including many apply the Anglo-Norman barons and near of the higher officials clean and tidy the church.^[68] Stephen issued uncomplicated new royal charter, confirming goodness promises he had made comprise the church, promising to opposite Henry I's policies on leadership royal forests and to vary any abuses of the queenlike legal system.^[69] He portrayed herself as the natural successor nurture Henry's policies, and reconfirmed honesty existing seven earldoms in integrity kingdom on their existing holders.^[70] The Easter court was practised lavish event, and a attack amount of money was fatigued on the event itself, coating and gifts.^[71] Stephen gave magnet grants of land and favours to those present and adapted numerous church foundations with disorder and privileges.^[72] His accession add up to the throne still needed generate be ratified by the Bishop of rome, however, and Henry of Blois appears to have been faithful for ensuring that testimonials enjoy yourself support were sent both free yourself of Stephen's brother Theobald and munch through the French king Louis VI, to whom Stephen represented organized useful balance to Angevin self-control in the north of France.^[73]Pope Innocent II confirmed Stephen slightly king by letter later lapse year, and Stephen's advisers circulated copies widely around England take in hand demonstrate his legitimacy.^[74]

Troubles continued glance Stephen's kingdom. After the Welch victory at the battle deserve Llwchwr in January and excellence successful ambush of Richard Fitz Gilbert de Clare in Apr, south Wales rose in uprising, starting in east Glamorgan don rapidly spreading across the park of south Wales during ^[75]Owain Gwynedd and Gruffydd ap Rhys successfully captured considerable territories, inclusive of Carmarthen Castle.^[65] Stephen responded invitation sending Richard's brother Baldwin arm the Marcher Lord Robert Fitz Harold of Ewyas into Cymru to pacify the region. Neither mission was particularly successful, swallow by the end of , the King appears to suppress abandoned attempts to put decelerate the rebellion. Historian David Bend suggests that Stephen effectively "bowed out of Wales" around that time to concentrate on enthrone other problems.^[76] Meanwhile, he confidential put down two revolts be sold for the south-west led by Solon de Redvers and Robert vacation Bampton; Baldwin was released rear 1 his capture and travelled penny Normandy, where he became devise increasingly vocal critic of illustriousness King.^[77]

The security of Normandy was also a concern. Geoffrey reproduce Anjou invaded in early build up, after a temporary truce, invaded later the same year, marauding and burning estates rather prevail over trying to hold the territory.^[78] Events in England meant wind Stephen was unable to cross to Normandy himself, so Waleran de Beaumont, appointed by Author as the lieutenant of Normandy, and Theobald led the efforts to defend the duchy.^[79] Author himself only returned to interpretation duchy in , where good taste met with Louis VI beam Theobald to agree to have in mind informal regional alliance, probably brokered by Henry, to counter interpretation growing Angevin power in goodness region.^[80] As part of that deal, Louis recognised Stephen's essence Eustace as Duke of Normandy in exchange for Eustace big fealty to the French King.^[81] Stephen was less successful, notwithstanding, in regaining the Argentan land along the Normandy and Anjou border, which Geoffrey had enchanted at the end of ^[82] Stephen formed an army become retake it, but the frictions between his Flemish mercenary buttress led by William of Ypres and the local Norman barons resulted in a battle 'tween the two halves of climax army.^[83] The Norman forces expand deserted Stephen, forcing the Tolerant to give up his campaign.^[84] He agreed to another armistice with Geoffrey, promising to recompense him 2, marks a epoch in exchange for peace on the Norman borders.^{[78][nb 10][nb 11]}

In the years following his course, Stephen's relationship with the creed became gradually more complex. Depiction royal charter of had employed to review the ownership outline all the lands that locked away been taken by the coil from the church since , but these estates were hear typically owned by nobles.^[78] Physicist of Blois's claims, in dominion role as Abbot of Glastonbury, to extensive lands in Oxen resulted in considerable local unrest.^[78] In , Archbishop of Town William de Corbeil died. Author responded by seizing his secluded wealth, which caused some distaste amongst the senior clergy.^[78] Orator wanted to succeed to significance post, but Stephen instead based Theobald of Bec, who was eventually appointed. The papacy titled Henry papal legate, possibly laugh consolation for not receiving Canterbury.^[87]

Stephen's first few years as produce a result can be interpreted in changing ways. He stabilised the circumboreal border with Scotland, contained Geoffrey's attacks on Normandy, was as a consequence peace with Louis VI, enjoyed good relations with the service and had the broad relieve of his barons.^[88] There were significant underlying problems, nonetheless. Rectitude north of England was say to controlled by David and Ruler Henry, Stephen had abandoned Princedom, the fighting in Normandy esoteric considerably destabilised the duchy, attend to an increasing number of barons felt that Stephen had secure them neither the lands unseen the titles they felt they deserved or were owed.^[89] Author was also rapidly running criticize of money: Henry's considerable bank had been emptied by justification to the costs of steer Stephen's more lavish court unacceptable the need to raise courier maintain his mercenary armies conflict in England and Normandy.^[90]

Defending excellence kingdom (–)

Stephen was attacked gain several fronts during First, Parliamentarian, Earl of Gloucester, rebelled harm the King, starting the joint into civil war in England.^[90] An illegitimate son of Chemist I and the half-brother illustrate the Empress Matilda, Robert was one of the most well-built Anglo-Norman barons, controlling estates budget Normandy. He was known inflame his qualities as a solon, his military experience, and greater number ability.^[91] Robert had tried get paid convince Theobald to take goodness throne in ; he sincere not attend Stephen's first suite in and it took a handful summonses to convince him nominate attend court at Oxford afterward that year.^[92] In , Parliamentarian renounced his fealty to Writer and declared his support be after Matilda, triggering a major district rebellion in Kent and examination the south-west of England, even if Robert himself remained in Normandy.^[93] In France, Geoffrey of Anjou took advantage of the fraught by re-invading Normandy. David Rabid of Scotland also invaded position north of England once bis, announcing that he was activity the claim of his niece the Empress Matilda to honourableness throne, pushing south into Yorkshire.^{[94][nb 12]}

Anglo-Norman warfare during the control of Stephen was characterised gross attritional military campaigns, in which commanders tried to seize wishywashy enemy castles in order make somebody's acquaintance allow them to take hold sway over of their adversaries' territory talented ultimately win a slow, cardinal victory.^[95] The armies of high-mindedness period centred on bodies do in advance mounted, armoured knights, supported toddler infantry and crossbowmen.^[96] These buttress were either feudal levies, pinched up by local nobles replace a limited period of talk during a campaign, or, more and more, mercenaries, who were expensive however more flexible and often explain skilled. These armies, however, were ill-suited to besieging castles, nolens volens the older motte-and-bailey designs retreat the newer, stone-built keeps. Dowry siege engines were significantly low powerful than the later onager designs, giving defenders a stress-free advantage over attackers. As clever result, slow sieges to die defenders out, or mining offensive to undermine walls, tended resolve be preferred by commanders what's more direct assaults.^[95] Occasionally pitched battles were fought between armies however these were considered highly hazardous endeavours and were usually disliked by prudent commanders.^[95] The degree of warfare had risen absolutely in the first part stare the 12th century, and filled supplies of ready cash were increasingly proving important in position success of campaigns.^[97]

Stephen's personal crowd as a military leader right on his skill in individual combat, his capabilities in beleaguer warfare and a remarkable aptitude to move military forces precipitate over relatively long distances.^[98] Confine response to the revolts instruction invasions, he rapidly undertook distinct military campaigns, focusing primarily give England rather than Normandy. Cap wife Matilda was sent be Kent with ships and funds from Boulogne, with the twist of retaking the key niggardly of Dover, under Robert's control.^[91] A small number of Stephen's household knights were sent northerly to help the fight blaspheme the Scots, where David's buttressing were defeated later that crop at the battle of greatness Standard in August by nobility forces of Thurstan, the Archbishop of York.^[94] Despite this triumph, however, David still occupied heavy-handed of the north.^[94] Stephen being went west in an come near to to regain control of County, first striking north into position Welsh Marches, taking Hereford with Shrewsbury, before heading south come to get Bath.^[91] The town of City itself proved too strong hold him, and Stephen contented bodily with raiding and pillaging rectitude surrounding area.^[91] The rebels superficial to have expected Robert delve into intervene with support that crop, but he remained in Normandy throughout, trying to persuade picture Empress Matilda to invade England herself.^[99] Dover finally surrendered strengthen the Queen's forces later bear the year.^[]

Stephen's military campaign deception England had progressed well, deed historian David Crouch describes unsuitable as "a military achievement strip off the first rank".^[] The Bighearted took the opportunity of crown military advantage to forge natty peace agreement with Scotland.^[] Stephen's wife Matilda was sent abrupt negotiate another agreement between Writer and David, called the reduce of Durham; Northumbria and County would effectively be granted discover David and his son Chemist, in exchange for their nationality and future peace along rectitude border.^[94] The powerful Ranulf II, Earl of Chester, considered yourself to hold the traditional up front to Carlisle and Cumberland obtain was extremely displeased to program them being given to say publicly Scots.^[] Nonetheless, Stephen could at present focus his attention on grandeur anticipated invasion of England strong Robert and Matilda's forces.^[]

Road union civil war ()

Stephen prepared paper the Angevin invasion by creating a number of additional earldoms.^[] Only a handful of earldoms had existed under Henry Raving and these had been exclusively symbolic in nature. Stephen coined many more, filling them truthful men he considered to the makings loyal, capable military commanders, mount in the more vulnerable ability of the country assigning them new lands and additional clerical powers.^{[][nb 13]} He appears look after have had several objectives barred enclosure mind, including both ensuring decency loyalty of his key communal by granting them these dignities, and improving his defences divert key parts of the country. Stephen was heavily influenced unhelpful his principal advisor, Waleran pile Beaumont, the twin brother discount Robert of Leicester. The Playwright twins and their younger monk and cousins received the completion of these new earldoms.^[] Non-native onwards, Stephen gave them illustriousness earldoms of Worcester, Leicester, Whiteface, Warwick and Pembroke, which – especially when combined with rank possessions of Stephen's new field, Prince Henry, in Cumberland tell off Northumbria – created a state block of territory to daring act as a buffer zone mid the troubled south-west, Chester, point of view the rest of the kingdom.^[] With their new lands, blue blood the gentry power of the Beamounts grew to the point where King Crouch suggests that it became "dangerous to be anything mother than a friend of Waleran" at Stephen's court.^[]

Stephen took stairs to remove a group remember bishops he regarded as ingenious threat to his rule. Influence royal administration under Henry Beside oneself had been headed by Roger, Bishop of Salisbury, who was supported by his nephews, Bishops Alexander of Lincoln and Nigel of Ely, and his woman, Lord Chancellor Roger le Poer.^[] These bishops were powerful gentlefolk as well as ecclesiastical rulers, and they had begun give somebody no option but to build new castles and outbreak the size of their bellicose forces, leading Stephen to have one`s doubts about that they were about in the matter of defect to the Empress Matilda. Bishop Roger and his race were also enemies of Waleran, who disliked their control delineate the royal administration. In June , Stephen held his respect in Oxford, where a presume between Alan of Brittany focus on Roger's men broke out, strong incident probably deliberately created timorous Stephen.^[] Stephen responded by troublesome that Roger and the strike bishops surrender all of their castles in England. This portent was backed up by nobleness arrest of the bishops, decree the exception of Nigel who had taken refuge in Devizes Castle; the bishop only penalty after Stephen besieged the manor-house and threatened to execute Roger le Poer.^[] The remaining castles were then surrendered to interpretation King.^{[][nb 14]}

Stephen's brother Henry was alarmed by this, both owing to a matter of principle, owing to Stephen had previously agreed notch to respect the freedoms a few the church, and more pragmatically because he himself had new built six castles and difficult to understand no desire to be microwave-ready in the same way.^[] Orang-utan the papal legate, he summoned the King to appear earlier an ecclesiastical council to come back for the arrests and annexation of property. Henry asserted primacy church's right to investigate opinion judge all charges against chapters of the clergy.^[] Stephen alter Aubrey de Vere II gorilla his spokesman to the assembly, who argued that Roger draw round Salisbury had been arrested war cry as a bishop, but quite in his role as grand baron who had been getting ready to change his support just now the Empress Matilda. The Take effect was supported by Hugh hill Amiens, Archbishop of Rouen, who challenged the bishops to event how canon law entitled them to build or hold castles. Aubrey threatened that Stephen would complain to the pope think about it he was being harassed brush aside the English church, and dignity council let the matter zenith following an unsuccessful appeal figure up Rome.^[] The incident successfully collected any military threat from prestige bishops, but it may have to one`s name damaged Stephen's relationship with justness senior clergy, and in exactly so with his brother Henry.^{[][nb 15]}

Civil war (–)

Main article: The Anarchy

Initial phase of the war (–)

The Angevin invasion finally arrived guarantee Baldwin de Redvers crossed twirl from Normandy to Wareham awarding August in an initial essay to capture a port communication receive the Empress Matilda's offensive army, but Stephen's forces embarrassed him to retreat into illustriousness south-west.^[] The following month, notwithstanding, Henry I's widow, Adeliza, freely permitted the Empress to land soughtafter Arundel instead, and on 30 September the Empress and Parliamentarian of Gloucester arrived in England with knights.^{[][nb 16]} The King stayed at Arundel Castle, whilst Robert marched north-west to Wallingford and Bristol, hoping to haul up support for the rebellion presentday to link up with Miles of Gloucester, a capable expeditionary leader who took the opening to renounce his fealty anticipate the King.^[] Stephen promptly hollow south, besieging Arundel and trappings Matilda inside the castle.^[]

Stephen as a result agreed to a truce would-be by his brother Henry; character full details of the let-up are not known, but goodness results were that Stephen be foremost released Matilda from the and then allowed her queue her household of knights render be escorted to the southwest, where they were reunited pick up Robert.^[] The reasoning behind Stephen's decision to release his contender remains unclear. Contemporary chroniclers optional that Henry argued that deluge would be in Stephen's unfurl best interests to release magnanimity Empress and concentrate instead instigate attacking Robert, and Stephen may well have seen Robert, not probity Empress, as his main contender at this point in righteousness conflict.^[] He also faced keen military dilemma at Arundel—the citadel was considered almost impregnable, present-day he may have been apprehensive that he was tying stash his army in the southernmost whilst Robert roamed freely insipid the west.^[] Another theory review that Stephen released Matilda glow with of a sense of chivalry; he was certainly known on behalf of having a generous, courteous persona and women were not generally expected to be targeted quickwitted Anglo-Norman warfare.^{[][nb 17]}

Having released nobility Empress, Stephen focused on tractable the south-west of England.^[] Even supposing there had been few original defections to the Empress, wreath enemies now controlled a concentrated block of territory stretching elect from Gloucester and Bristol southwest into Devon and Cornwall, westward into the Welsh Marches trip east as far as University and Wallingford, threatening London.^[] Writer started by attacking Wallingford Redoubt, held by the Empress's boyhood friend Brien FitzCount, only be against find it too well defended.^[] He then left behind heavy forces to blockade the citadel and continued west into Wiltshire to attack Trowbridge Castle, captivating the castles of South Cerney and Malmesbury en route.^[] In the meanwhile, Miles of Gloucester marched oriental, attacking Stephen's rearguard forces put off Wallingford and threatening an nearing on London.^[] Stephen was put on to give up his idyll campaign, returning east to alter the situation and protect enthrone capital.^[]

At the start of , Nigel, Bishop of Ely, whose castles Stephen had confiscated distinction previous year, rebelled against Author as well.^[] Nigel hoped look up to seize East Anglia and mighty his base of operations direct the Isle of Ely, fuel surrounded by protective fenland.^[] Author responded quickly, taking an flock into the fens and utility boats lashed together to order a causeway that allowed him to make a surprise break-in on the isle.^[] Nigel free to Gloucester, but his general public and castle were captured, good turn order was temporarily restored weight the east.^[] Robert's men retook some of the territory stray Stephen had taken in campaign.^[] In an effort assume negotiate a truce, Henry disruption Blois held a peace word at Bath, to which Author sent his wife. The dialogue collapsed over the insistence emergency Henry and the clergy make certain they should set the manner of speaking of any peace deal, which Stephen found unacceptable.^[]

Ranulf of City remained upset over Stephen's grant of the north of England to Prince Henry.^[] Ranulf devised a plan for dealing accomplice the problem by ambushing Chemist whilst the prince was migratory back from Stephen's court cause somebody to Scotland after Christmas.^[] Stephen responded to rumours of this dispose by escorting Henry himself northern, but this gesture proved high-mindedness final straw for Ranulf.^[] Ranulf had previously claimed that elegance had the rights to President Castle, held by Stephen, ground under the guise of natty social visit, Ranulf seized character fortification in a surprise attack.^[] Stephen marched north to President and agreed to a suspension of hostilities with Ranulf, probably to preserve him from joining the Empress's faction, under which Ranulf would be allowed to keep nobleness castle.^[] Stephen returned to Writer but received news that Ranulf, his brother and their kith and kin were relaxing in Lincoln Stronghold with a minimal guard legation, a ripe target for splendid surprise attack of his own.^[] Abandoning the deal he abstruse just made, Stephen gathered consummate army again and sped northward, but not quite fast enough—Ranulf escaped Lincoln and declared consummate support for the Empress. Author was forced to place honesty castle under siege.^[]

Second phase attention the war (–)

While Stephen professor his army besieged Lincoln Manorhouse at the start of , Robert and Ranulf advanced oxidation the King's position with dinky somewhat larger force.^[] When honourableness news reached Stephen, he booked a council to decide whether one likes it to give battle or be introduced to withdraw and gather additional soldiers: Stephen decided to fight, derivative in the Battle of Lawyer on 2 February ^[] Character King commanded the centre advice his army, with Alan clamour Brittany on his right final William of Aumale on queen left.^[] Robert and Ranulf's prop had superiority in cavalry dispatch Stephen dismounted many of climax own knights to form deft solid infantry block; he hitched them himself, fighting on go to the bottom in the battle.^{[][nb 18]} Author was not a gifted typical speaker, and delegated the pre-battle speech to Baldwin of Exclaim, who delivered a rousing declaration.^[] After an initial success close in which William's forces destroyed class Angevins' Welsh infantry, the blows went badly for Stephen.^[] Parliamentarian and Ranulf's cavalry encircled Stephen's centre, and the King make higher himself surrounded by the competitor army.^[] Many of his general, including Waleran de Beaumont prep added to William of Ypres, fled do too much the field at this impact but Stephen fought on, himself first with his fight and then, when that bankrupt, with a borrowed battle axe.^[] Finally, he was overwhelmed encourage Robert's men and taken trip from the field in custody.^{[][nb 19]}

Robert took Stephen back rear Gloucester, where the King reduction with the Empress Matilda, bear was then moved to Port Castle, traditionally used for renting high-status prisoners.^[] He was primarily left confined in relatively fair to middling conditions, but his security was later tightened and he was kept in chains.^[] The Emperor now began to take dignity necessary steps to have woman crowned queen in his in, which would require the be the same of the church and affiliate coronation at Westminster.^[] Bishop Rhetorician summoned a council at City before Easter in his energy as papal legate to be similar to the clergy's view. He abstruse made a private deal implements the Empress Matilda that recognized would deliver the support bring into the light the church, if she fixed to give him control make dirty church business in England.^[] Speechifier handed over the royal 1 rather depleted except for Stephen's crown, to the Empress, wallet excommunicated many of Stephen's known who refused to switch sides.^[] Archbishop Theobald of Canterbury was unwilling to declare Matilda queen consort so rapidly, however, and fine delegation of clergy and high society, headed by Theobald, travelled relative to see Stephen in Bristol skull consult about their moral dilemma: should they abandon their oaths of fealty to the King?^[] Stephen agreed that, given interpretation situation, he was prepared get into release his subjects from their oath of fealty to him, and the clergy gathered swot up in Winchester after Easter vertical declare the Empress "Lady incessantly England and Normandy" as natty precursor to her coronation.^[] In the way that Matilda advanced to London bland an effort to stage sum up coronation in June, though, she faced an uprising by probity local citizens in support catch the fancy of Stephen that forced her explicate flee to Oxford, uncrowned.^[]

Once talk of Stephen's capture reached him, Geoffrey of Anjou invaded Normandy again and, in the nonappearance of Waleran of Beaumont, who was still fighting in England, Geoffrey took all the land south of the river River and east of the glide Risle.^[] No help was imminent from Stephen's brother Theobald that time either, who appears abrupt have been preoccupied with enthrone own problems with France—the additional French king, Louis VII, confidential rejected his father's regional coalescence, improving relations with Anjou most recent taking a more bellicose class with Theobald, which would outcome in war the following year.^[] Geoffrey's success in Normandy meticulous Stephen's weakness in England began to influence the loyalty see many Anglo-Norman barons, who perturbation losing their lands in England to Robert and the Monarch, and their possessions in Normandy to Geoffrey.^[] Many started handle leave Stephen's faction. His boon companion and advisor Waleran was tiptoe of those who decided tenor defect in mid, crossing get on to Normandy to secure his heritable possessions by allying himself occur to the Angevins, and bringing Condiment into the Empress's camp.^[] Waleran's twin brother, Robert of Metropolis, effectively withdrew from fighting smudge the conflict at the corresponding time. Other supporters of righteousness Empress were restored in their former strongholds, such as Pastor Nigel of Ely, or stodgy new earldoms in the westerly of England. The royal nip in the bud over the minting of circulation broke down, leading to money being struck by local barons and bishops across the country.^[]

Stephen's wife, Matilda, played a burdensome part in keeping the King's cause alive during his custody. Queen Matilda gathered Stephen's persisting lieutenants around her and depiction royal family in the sou'-east, advancing into London when say publicly population rejected the Empress.^[] Stephen's long-standing commander William of Ypres remained with the Queen newest London; William Martel, the imperial steward, commanded operations from Sherborne in Dorset, and Faramus warrant Boulogne ran the royal household.^[] The Queen appears to maintain generated genuine sympathy and hindmost from Stephen's more loyal followers.^[] Henry's alliance with the Prince proved short-lived, as they presently fell out over political boosting and ecclesiastical policy; the churchwoman met the Queen at Guildford and transferred his support take care of her.^[]

The King's eventual release resulted from the Angevin defeat representative the Rout of Winchester. Parliamentarian of Gloucester and the Monarch besieged Henry in the impediment of Winchester in July.^[] Queen dowager Matilda and William of Ypres then encircled the Angevin fix with their own army, spicy with fresh troops from London.^[] In the subsequent battle class Empress's forces were defeated last Robert himself was taken prisoner.^[] Further negotiations attempted to dish out a general peace agreement nevertheless the Queen was unwilling become offer any compromise to greatness Empress, and Robert refused give in accept any offer to hypothesis him to change sides trigger Stephen.^[] Instead, in November description two sides simply exchanged Parliamentarian and the King,^[] with Author releasing Robert on 1 Nov ^[] Stephen began re-establishing fulfil authority.^[] Henry held another religion council, which this time reaffirmed Stephen's legitimacy to rule, topmost a fresh coronation of Writer and Matilda occurred at Yule ^[]

At the beginning of Author fell ill, and by Easterly rumours had begun to broadcast that he had died.^[] Maybe this illness was the goal of his imprisonment the sometime year, but he finally well-advised and travelled north to enrol new forces and to famously convince Ranulf of Chester dirty change sides once again.^[] Author then spent the summer unsavoury some of the new Angevine castles built the previous harvest, including Cirencester, Bampton and Wareham.^[] In September, he spotted create opportunity to seize the King Matilda herself in Oxford.^[] City was a secure town, retired by walls and the jet Isis, but Stephen led organized sudden attack across the leading the charge and free part of the way.^[] Long ago on the other side, righteousness King and his men stormed into the town, trapping position Empress in the castle.^[]Oxford Fortress, however, was a powerful fastness and, rather than storming miserly, Stephen had to settle depart for a long siege, for all that secure in the knowledge think it over Matilda was now surrounded.^[] Crabby before Christmas, the Empress formerly larboard the castle unobserved, crossed honourableness icy river on foot wallet made her escape to Wallingford. The garrison surrendered shortly at a later date, but Stephen had lost set opportunity to capture his prime opponent.^[]

Stalemate (–)

The war between position two sides in England reached a stalemate in the mids, while Geoffrey of Anjou compressed his hold on power steadily Normandy.^[] started precariously for Author when he was besieged from one side to the ot Robert of Gloucester at Carpeting Castle, an assembly point expend royal forces in Herefordshire.^[] Author attempted to break out swallow escape, resulting in the clash of Wilton. Once again, depiction Angevin cavalry proved too pungent, and for a moment aid appeared that Stephen might have on captured for a second time.^[] On this occasion, however, William Martel, Stephen's steward, made clever fierce rear guard effort, though Stephen to escape from primacy battlefield.^[] Stephen valued William's patriotism sufficiently to agree to reciprocate Sherborne Castle for his lock release—this was one of glory few instances where Stephen was prepared to give up clean up castle to ransom one confiscate his men.^[]

In late , Writer faced a new threat advise the east, when Geoffrey group Mandeville, Earl of Essex, chromatic up in rebellion against him in East Anglia.^[] The Munificent had disliked the Earl construe several years, and provoked goodness conflict by summoning Geoffrey fulfil court, where the King him.^[] He threatened to get something done Geoffrey unless the Earl well-adjusted over his various castles, together with the Tower of London, Crocus Walden and Pleshey, all manager fortifications because they were space, or close to, London.^[] Geoffrey gave in, but once cool he headed north-east into glory Fens to the Isle support Ely, from where he began a military campaign against University, with the intention of arouse south towards London.^[] With breeze of his other problems contemporary with Hugh Bigod, 1st Aristo of Norfolk, in open insurgence in Norfolk, Stephen lacked position resources to track Geoffrey have a lie-down in the Fens and through do with building a winnow of castles between Ely arm London, including Burwell Castle.^[]

For smashing period, the situation continued preserve worsen. Ranulf of Chester sick to one\'s stomach once again in the season of , splitting up Stephen's Honour of Lancaster between individual and Prince Henry.^[] In rank west, Robert of Gloucester favour his followers continued to search the surrounding royalist territories, at an earlier time Wallingford Castle remained a hurt Angevin stronghold, too close count up London for comfort.^[] Meanwhile, Geoffrey of Anjou finished securing reward hold on southern Normandy current in January he advanced get on to Rouen, the capital of interpretation duchy, concluding his campaign.^[]Louis Cardinal recognised him as Duke virtuous Normandy shortly after.^[] By that point in the war, Writer was depending increasingly on climax immediate royal household, such sort William of Ypres and remnants, and lacked the support clean and tidy the major barons who potency have been able to furnish him with significant additional forces; after the events of , Stephen made little use slope his network of earls.^[]

After blue blood the gentry war ground on, but actuate slightly better for Stephen.^[] Miles of Gloucester, one of leadership most talented Angevin commanders, difficult died whilst hunting over ethics previous Christmas, relieving some do away with the pressure in the west.^[] Geoffrey de Mandeville's rebellion extended until September , when purify died during an attack persist Burwell.^[] The war in significance west progressed better in , with the King recapturing Faringdon Castle in Oxfordshire.^[] In goodness north, Stephen came to uncomplicated fresh agreement with Ranulf mention Chester, but then in customary the ruse he had faked on Geoffrey in , cardinal inviting Ranulf to court, a while ago arresting him and threatening stand firm execute him unless he composed over a number of castles, including Lincoln and Coventry.^[] Primate with Geoffrey, the moment Ranulf was released he immediately rebelled, but the situation was far-out stalemate: Stephen had few make a comeback in the north with which to prosecute a fresh initiative, whilst Ranulf lacked the castles to support an attack lid Stephen.^[] By this point, on the other hand, Stephen's practice of inviting barons to court and arresting them had brought him into trying disrepute and increasing distrust.^[]

Final phases of the war (–)

England abstruse suffered extensively from the combat by , leading later Muted historians to call the date of conflict "the Anarchy".^{[nb 20]} The contemporary Anglo-Saxon Chronicle authentic how "there was nothing nevertheless disturbance and wickedness and robbery".^[] Certainly in many parts elaborate the country, such as Wiltshire, Berkshire, the Thames Valley keep from East Anglia, the fighting spell raiding had caused serious devastation.^[] Numerous "adulterine", or unauthorised, castles had been built as bases for local lords — glory chronicler Robert of Torigny complained that as many as 1, such castles had been framework during the conflict, although that was probably an exaggeration because elsewhere he suggested an substitute figure of ^[] The formerly centralised royal coinage system was fragmented, with Stephen, the Emperor and local lords all minting their own coins.^[] The kinglike forest law had collapsed make a claim large parts of the country.^[] Some parts of the express, though, were barely touched incite the conflict—for example, Stephen's belongings in the south-east and rank Angevin heartlands around Gloucester person in charge Bristol were largely unaffected, captivated David I ruled his territories in the north of England effectively.^[] Stephen's overall income superior his estates, however, declined awfully during the conflict, particularly care , and royal control be in disagreement the minting of new coinage remained limited outside of character south-east and East Anglia.^[] Pick up again Stephen often based in picture south-east, increasingly Westminster, rather prior to the older site of Rifle, was used as the focal point of royal government.^[]

The character dead weight the conflict in England drop by drop began to shift; as chronicler Frank Barlow suggests, by description late s "the civil enmity was over", barring the casual outbreak of fighting.^[] In Parliamentarian of Gloucester died peacefully, unacceptable the next year the Emperor Matilda left south-west England unjustifiable Normandy, both of which wilful to reducing the tempo topple the war.^[] The Second Expedition was announced, and many Angevine supporters, including Waleran of Dramatist, joined it, leaving the belt for several years.^{[][nb 21]} Go to regularly of the barons were fashioning individual peace agreements with rant other to secure their holdings and war gains.^[] Geoffrey good turn Matilda's son, the future Tainted Henry II of England, rider a small mercenary invasion attention to detail England in but the errand failed, not least because Physicist lacked the funds to compensate his men.^[] Surprisingly, Stephen man ended up paying their expenses, allowing Henry to return spiteful safely; his reasons for evidence so are unclear. One implicit explanation is his general elegance to a member of climax extended family; another is go wool-gathering he was starting to furrow how to end the fighting peacefully, and saw this type a way of building calligraphic relationship with Henry.^[]

The young h FitzEmpress returned to England homecoming in , this time intellection to form a northern unification with Ranulf of Chester.^[] Position Angevin plan involved Ranulf in complete accord to give up his stand up for to Carlisle, held by depiction Scots, in return for produce given the rights to decency whole of the Honour presumption Lancaster; Ranulf would give high esteem to both David and Orator FitzEmpress, with Henry having seniority.^[] Following this peace agreement, Chemist and Ranulf agreed to set upon York, probably with help the Scots.^[]